© 2016 American Psychological Association. Perceived social norms of substance use are commonly identified as a risk factor for use. How the strength of association between perceived friends' use and substance use may change across development has not yet been documented. The current analysis considers how the associations between perceived friends' marijuana use and participants' own use of any marijuana in the past year changes from ages 18 to 30 using longitudinal data from the United States national Monitoring the Future study from 1976 to 2014 (N = 30,794 people). Time-varying effect modeling (TVEM) was used to examine the associations between perceived friends' use of marijuana and participants' own annual marijuana use by age, as well as the extent to which these time-varying associations were moderated by sex, race/ethnicity, and parental education. Associations between perceived friends' use and own marijuana use increased with age. In addition, the association between perceived friends' use and own marijuana use significantly varied by demographic groups, such that it was significantly greater for men from ages 19 to 24 and from ages 27 to 30, compared with women; for Whites, compared with other race/ethnicities, across all ages; and for individuals whose parents attended college, compared with those whose parents had a high school education or less, across all ages. Results suggest that perceived friends' marijuana use becomes an even more important marker for increased marijuana use as people age through young adulthood. Therefore, the role of peers in substance use remains crucial beyond adolescence and should be incorporated into intervention strategies for young adults.

OBJECTIVE This study examines reasons for marijuana use among young adults age 19/20 in the United States and the extent to which patterns of reasons are associated with marijuana use and problems 15 years later. METHOD The national Monitoring the Future study provided data on marijuana users at age 19/20 who were also surveyed at age 35 (n = 2,288; 50% women; 83% White). Latent class analysis was used to identify distinct patterns of reasons for marijuana use, which were then used as predictors of later marijuana use and problems. RESULTS Five latent classes described the following patterns of reasons for marijuana use at age 19/20: Experimental, Get High + Relax, Typical, Typical + Escape, and Coping + Drug Use. Highest risk for later marijuana use and problems was found for people with Coping + Drug Use and Get High + Relax reasons in young adulthood; those with Experimental reasons were at lowest risk for later use or problems. CONCLUSIONS Coping and getting high emerged as strong predictors of later marijuana use and problems. Results support the predictive value of self-reported reasons for using marijuana among young adults.

Objective The study describes the most common reasons for using vaporizers (such as e-cigarettes) among US adolescents and investigates how reasons for use differ by grade, lifetime cigarette use, frequency of vaporizer use, gender, race/ethnicity, and parent education. Method Data were collected from 4066 students in the 8th, 10th, and 12th grades in 2015 as part of the Monitoring the Future study, a cross-sectional and nationally representative US survey. Results Common reasons for vaporizer use reported by respondents who had ever used a vaporizer were experimentation (53.0%), taste (37.2%), boredom (23.5%), having a good time (22.4%), and relaxation (21.6%). Reasons differed little across grades or parent education; reasons differed by lifetime use of regular cigarettes, frequency of vaping, gender, and race/ethnicity. Conclusions Overall, results suggest that decisions to vape are based on curiosity, taste, and pleasure, rather than for reasons such as quitting regular cigarettes or substituting for regular cigarette smoking.

© 2016 American Psychological Association. College students experience numerous positive and negative consequences from drinking alcohol, although the extent to which these consequences influence perceptions of their drinking experiences is poorly understood. A better understanding of the impact of experiencing specific consequences, and how they are evaluated, on college students' perceptions of the overall drinking experience and subsequent alcohol use is crucial for advancing intervention efforts. The current study used daily data to examine (a) whether experiencing specific consequences and (b) whether ratings of the most favorable and most aversive consequences predicted overall evaluations of the drinking experience and perceptions that drinking was worth it; and (c) whether overall evaluations and perceptions that drinking was worth it predicted next-day drinking. College student drinkers (N = 349, 53.3% female) completed daily reports on drinking, consequences, evaluations of consequences, and evaluations of the drinking experience during four 2-week periods across 1 year. Findings from generalized estimating equations demonstrated that experiencing any of the positive consequences predicted more favorable overall evaluations and perceptions that drinking was worth it, whereas the majority of the negative consequences predicted less favorable overall evaluations. Ratings of the most favorable positive consequence and the most aversive negative consequence were also associated with overall evaluations. Perceiving that drinking was more worth it was associated with an increased likelihood of next-day drinking. Current findings reinforce the need to address the experience of both positive and negative consequences in interventions, while simultaneously considering the extent to which students perceived the negative consequences as aversive.

Objective: To examine characteristics of alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) use in a sample of college students. Participants: College students (N=614, 53% female) in their second year of college participated during the fall of 2008. Method: Students completed a crosssectional survey with questions regarding AmED use. Results: AmED use in the last 30 days was reported by 27% of participants. Logistic regression analyses found that risk factors for AmED included participating in a fraternity/sorority; participating in athletics; living offcampus; having greater fun/social, relax, image motives for alcohol consumption; and binge drinking. Protective factors included early morning classes, Honors Program participation, and greater physical/behavioral motives for not drinking. Conclusions: Risk factors for AmED use can identify college students most likely to consume AmEDs and thereby inform screening and intervention efforts to reduce negative AmED-related consequences.

Purpose The consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) is a risky drinking behavior, most commonly studied using college samples. We know little about rates of AmED use and its associations with other risk behaviors, including unsafe driving, among high school students. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of AmED use among high school seniors in the United States. Methods Nationally representative analytic samples included 6,498 12th-grade students who completed Monitoring the Future surveys in 2012 and 2013. Focal measures included AmED use, sociodemographic characteristics, academic and social factors, other substance use, and unsafe driving (i.e., tickets/warnings and accidents) after alcohol consumption. Results Approximately one in four students (24.8%) reported AmED use during the past 12 months. Rates of AmED use were highest among males and white students. Using multivariable logistic regression models controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, results indicate that students who cut class, spent more evenings out for fun and recreation, and reported binge drinking, marijuana use, and illicit drug use had a greater likelihood of AmED use. AmED use was also associated with greater odds of alcohol-related unsafe driving, even after controlling for sociodemographic, academic, and social factors and other substance use. Conclusions AmED use among 12th-grade students is common and associated with certain sociodemographic, academic, social, and substance use factors. AmED use is also related to alcohol-related unsafe driving, which is a serious public health concern.

Purpose To estimate the prevalence of alcohol use at the age of 10-11 years and document variation by early sociodemographic and concurrent alcohol-specific risk factors. Methods The Millennium Cohort Study is a prospective, nationally representative study of live births in the United Kingdom across 12 months. A random sample of electoral wards was stratified to adequately represent U.K. countries, economically deprived areas, and areas with high concentrations of Asian and Black British families. A total of 12,305 child-mother pairs provided self-report data at 9 months (mother's marital status, age, education, occupational level; child gender, ethnicity, country) and age 10-11 years (adolescent alcohol use and attitudes). Results After adjusting for attrition and sampling design, 13.4% of 10- to 11-year-olds had had an alcoholic drink (more than few sips), 1.2% had felt drunk, and.6% had five or more drinks at a time. Odds of ever drinking were higher among boys (1.47, 95% confidence interval, 1.29-1.68) and lower among early adolescents who were Asian British (vs. white;.09,.05-.17) or Black British (.42,.29-.62). Beyond sociodemographic differences, more positive attitudes about alcohol were associated with greater odds of drinking (1.70, 1.51-1.91), feeling drunk (2.96, 2.07-4.24), and having five or more drinks (4.20, 2.66-6.61). Conclusions Alcohol use in the last year of primary school was identified but not common. Its use varied by sociodemographic groups; early adolescents with more positive alcohol attitudes had especially high risks of early alcohol initiation. Results support calls for increased surveillance and screening for very early drinking.

This study tested associations between positive and negative affect and heavy drinking in 734 college students who completed daily diaries in 14-day bursts once per semester over 7 semesters (≤98 days per person). Three-level multilevel models tested whether affect and heavy drinking were linked across days, semesters, and persons. Higher daily, between-semester, and between-person positive affect were each associated with greater odds of heavy drinking on weekdays and on weekend days. A significant interaction with semester in college showed that the association between daily positive affect and heavy drinking on weekend days became stronger over time. That is, heavy drinking on a weekend day with higher positive affect was more likely in later years of college (OR = 2.93, Fall of 4th year), compared to earlier in college (OR = 1.80, Fall of 1st year). A similar interaction was found for between-semester positive affect and heavy drinking on weekdays. Higher daily negative affect was associated with a greater odds of heavy drinking on weekdays only for students who first began drinking in 7th grade or earlier (OR = 2.36). Results of this study highlight the importance of varied time spans in studying the etiology, consequences, and prevention of heavy drinking. Harm-reduction strategies that target positive affect-related drinking by encouraging protective behaviors during celebratory events may become increasingly important as students transition to later years of college. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)

Daily links between alcohol use and sexual behaviors were examined in a longitudinal study of college students. Hierarchical linear models predicted sexual behaviors by characteristics of persons (N=731; Level 3), semesters (N=4,345, Level 2), and days (N=56,372, Level 1). On a given day, consuming more drinks and binge drinking were associated with greater odds of kissing, touching, oral sex, and penetrative sex. Consistent with alcohol myopia and expectancy theories, associations between binge drinking and sexual behaviors were stronger for students not in romantic relationships, for students with stronger alcohol-sex expectancies, and for oral and penetrative sex. Findings suggest that within-day links between alcohol use and sexual behaviors are evident across college, with variations based on individual and relationship factors.

The present study examined associations between use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS) by college students and their friends and drinking-related outcomes during Spring Break (SB). Moreover, this study examined the influence of friends' own PBS use on participants' PBS use during SB. Participants included college students (N. = 694) and their nominated friends (N. = 131) who were part of a larger study of SB drinking. Data were collected via web-based surveys that participants and friends took after SB, which assessed SB PBS, drinking, and related negative consequences. Results indicated that higher levels of Serious Harm Reduction (SHR) strategies and Limiting/Stopping (LS) strategies were associated with increased consumption, higher likelihood of experiencing any consequences, and an increased number of consequences. A different pattern emerged for Manner of Drinking (MD) strategy use; participants utilizing higher levels of MD strategies drank less and had fewer consequences. LS and MD strategies used by the participant's friends appeared to have less of an impact on the participant's drinking outcomes. However, greater friends' use of SHR strategies was associated with increased alcohol use by the participant, but not with consequences. Greater friends' use of SHR strategies was associated with greater SHR strategy use by the participant. Friends' LS and MD strategies were not associated with participant drinking, consequences, or PBS. These findings highlight the potential utility of interventions that focus on drinking behaviors on specific high-risk occasions for those at risk as well as for their friends.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess whether infrequent and frequent marijuana use at age 19/20 years predicts receipt of educational degrees by the mid-20s, independent of confounding age 18 adolescent risk factors. Methods Data were from the Monitoring the Future study, an annual nationally representative survey of high school seniors followed into adulthood. Thirteen cohorts (1990-2002) of high school seniors were followed longitudinally to their mid-20s (n = 4,925; 54% female). We used logistic regression and propensity score matching with successive inclusion of age 18 risk factors and substance use to compare age 19/20 frequent marijuana users (six or more occasions in past 30 days) to nonusers, frequent users to infrequent users (1-6 occasions), and infrequent users to nonusers on their likelihood of degree attainment by the mid-20s. Results Frequent marijuana users were less likely than infrequent users and nonusers to earn bachelor's degrees, even after controlling for a host of age 18 risk factors (e.g., family socioeconomic background, academic performance, educational expectations, truancy). However, these differences were reduced in magnitude to statistical nonsignificance when we controlled for age 18 substance use. Across analyses, the proportion reaching this educational milestone did not differ significantly between infrequent users and nonusers. Conclusions Results support a growing body of work suggesting that frequent marijuana use predicts a lower likelihood of postsecondary educational attainment, and this difference may originate during secondary school.

© 2015, © 2015 SAGE Publications. This study used national multicohort panel data from the Monitoring the Future study (N = 25,536 from senior year classes 1977–1997 followed up to the age of 35 years in 1994–2014) to examine how early midlife (age 35 years) alcohol use disorder (AUD) and cannabis use disorder (CUD) are associated with adolescent and adult sociodemographics and health and well-being risk factors. Survey items adapted from DSM-5 diagnostic criteria were used to identify individuals who (a) showed symptoms consistent with criteria for AUD or CUD at age 35 years, (b) used the substance without qualifying for a disorder (nondisordered users), and (c) abstained from using alcohol or marijuana during the past five years. At age 35 years, the estimated prevalence of past five-year AUD was 28.0%, and that of CUD was 6.1%. Multinomial logistic regressions were used to identify variations in the relative risk of disorder symptoms as a function of sociodemographic characteristics, age 18 educational and social indices and substance use, and age 35 health and satisfaction indices and substance use. In the full models, age 18 binge drinking and marijuana use were found to be among the strongest predictors of age 35 AUD and CUD, respectively. Among age 35 health and well-being indicators, lower overall health, more frequent cognitive difficulties, and lower satisfaction with spouse/partner were consistently associated with greater risks of AUD and CUD. Some evidence was found for a J-shaped association between age 35 AUD or CUD status and health and well-being indices, such that nondisordered users were sometimes better off than both abstainers and those experiencing disorder. Finally, nondisordered cannabis use, but not CUD, was found to be more common in more recent cohorts. Implications are discussed regarding the importance of placing early midlife substance use disorder within the context of both adolescent substance use and adult health and well-being.

Background: Studies looking at the association between perceived risk and simultaneous use of alcohol and marijuana are scarce. The present study has three purposes: (1) to examine the association between alcohol and marijuana use at the daily level; (2) to document how this association varies by the perceived risk of using alcohol and marijuana simultaneously; (3) to test whether the association varies by college attendance. Methods: 89 young adults (Mean Age=18.3. years, SD=0.5) participated between October 2012 and May 2013. Participants completed a 30-min survey followed by 14 brief daily surveys in each of three waves. Results: Alcohol use on a given day was associated with increased odds of marijuana use that day, especially among young adults with lower perceived risk. For college students, the association between alcohol and marijuana was weaker than for non-students. Conclusions: Alcohol and marijuana use were associated at a daily level, especially among young adults with lower perceived risk and those who were not attending college.

Background: This analysis examines decriminalization as a risk factor for future increases in youth marijuana acceptance and use. Specifically, we examine marijuana-related behaviors and attitudes of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders in California as compared to other U.S. states during the years before and after California passed legislation in 2010 to decriminalize marijuana. Methods: Data come from Monitoring the Future, an annual, nationally representative survey of 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students. Results: In 2012 and afterwards California 12th graders as compared to their peers in other states became (a) 25% more likely to have used marijuana in the past 30 days, (b) 20% less likely to perceive regular marijuana use as a great health risk, (c) 20% less likely to strongly disapprove of regular marijuana use, and (d) about 60% more likely to expect to be using marijuana five years in the future. Analysis of 10th graders raises the possibility that the findings among 12th graders may reflect a cohort effect that was set into place two years earlier. Conclusion: These results provide empirical evidence to support concerns that decriminalization may be a risk factor for future increases in youth marijuana use and acceptance.